Nairobi Recommendation
The "Recommendation on the legal protection of Translators and Translations and the practical means to improve the Status of Translators" was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO at its Nineteenth Session in Nairobi on November 22, 1976.
This was the first document published by an international organization to throw light on the profession of translator and to confront the peoples of all nations with the main problems of this profession. It drew attention to a state of affairs urgently demanding improvement, not only in the interests of the translating profession but also in the interests of international understanding, the spread of culture and the furtherance of science, technical progress and economic growth.
The Recommendation has been issued in several languages.
For the Spanish, Russian and Arabic versions, please contact UNESCO, 7 Place de Fontenoy, F-75700 Paris, France.
UNESCO
RECOMMENDATION ON THE LEGAL PROTECTION OF TRANSLATORS AND TRANSLATIONS AND THE PRACTICAL MEANS TO IMPROVE THE STATUS OF TRANSLATORS
The General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, meeting in Nairobi from 26 October to 30 November 1976, at its nineteenth session:
Considering
that translation promotes understanding between peoples and co-operation among nations by facilitating the dissemination of literary and scientific works, including technical works, across linguistic frontiers and the interchange of ideas,
Noting
the extremely important role played by translators and translations in international exchanges in culture, art and science, particularly in the case of works written or translated in less widely spoken languages,
Recognizing
that the protection of translators is indispensable in order to ensure translations of the quality needed for them to fulfil effectively their role in the service of culture and development,
Recalling
that, if the principles of this protection are already contained in the Universal Copyright Convention, while the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and a number of national laws of Member States also contain specific provisions concerning such protection, the practical application of these principles and provisions is not always adequate,
Being of the opinion
that if, in many countries with respect to copyright, translators and translations enjoy a protection which resembles the protection granted to authors and to literary and scientific works, including technical works, the adoption of measures of an essentially practical nature, assimilating translators to authors and specific to the translating profession, is nevertheless justified to ameliorate the effective application of existing laws,
Having decided,
at its eighteenth session, that the protection of translators should be the subject of a recommendation to Member States within the meaning of Article IV, paragraph 4, of the Constitution,
Adopts, this twenty-second day of November 1976, the present Recommendation.
The General Conference recommends that Member States apply the following provisions concerning the protection of translators and translations by taking whatever legislative or other steps may be required, in conformity with the constitutional provisions and institutional practice of each State, to give effect, within their respective territories, to the principles and standards set forth in this Recommendation.
The General Conference recommends that Member States bring this Recommendation to the attention of authorities, departments or bodies responsible for matters relating to the moral and material interests of translators and to the protection of translations, of the various organizations or associations representing or promoting the interests of translators, and of publishers, managers of theatres, broadcasters and other users and interested parties.
The General Conference recommends that Member States submit to the Organization, at such times and in such form as shall be determined by the General Conference, reports on the action taken by them to give effect to this Recommendation.
I. DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE OF APPLICATION
1.For purposes of this Recommendation:
(a) the term "translation" denotes the transposition of a literary or scientific work, including technical work, from one language into another language, whether or not the initial work, or the translation, is intended for publication in book, magazine, periodical, or other form, or for performance in the theatre, in a film, on radio or television, or in any other media;
(b) the term "translator" denotes translators of literary or scientific works, including technical works;
(c) the term "users" denotes the persons or legal entities for which a translation is made.
2. This Recommendation applies to all translators regardless of:
(a) the legal status applicable to them as:
(i) independent translators; or
(ii)salaried translators;
(b) the discipline to which the work translated belongs;
(c) the full-time or part-time nature of their position as translators.
II. GENERAL LEGAL POSITION OF TRANSLATORS
3. Member States should accord to translators, in respect of their translations, the protection accorded to authors under the provisions of the international copyright conventions to which they are party and/or under their national laws, but without prejudice to the rights of the authors of the original works translated.
III. MEASURES TO ENSURE THE APPLICATION IN PRACTICE OF PROTECTION AFFORDED TRANSLATORS UNDER INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND IN NATIONAL LAWS RELATING TO COPYRIGHT
4. It is desirable that a written agreement be concluded between a translator and the user.
5. As a general rule, a contract governing relations between a translator and a user, as well as where appropriate any other legal instrument governing such relations, should:
(a) accord an equitable remuneration to the translator whatever his or her legal status;
(b) at least when the translator is not working as a salaried translator, remunerate him or her in proportion to the proceeds of the sale or use of the translation with payment of an advance, the said advance being retained by the translator whatever the proceeds may be; or by the payment of a sum calculated in conformity with another system of remuneration independent of sales where it is provided for or permitted by national legislation; or by the payment of an equitable lump sum which could be made where payment on a proportional basis proves insufficient or inapplicable; the appropriate method of payment should be chosen taking into account the legal system of the country concerned and where applicable the type of original work translated;
(c) make provision, when appropriate, for a supplementary payment should the use made of the translation go beyond the limitations specified in the contract;
(d) specify that the authorizations granted by the translator are limited to the rights expressly mentioned, this provision applying to possible new editions;
(e) stipulate that in the event that the translator has not obtained any necessary authorization, it is the user who is responsible for obtaining such authorization;
(f) stipulate that the translator guarantees the user uncontested enjoyment of all the rights granted and undertakes to refrain from any action likely to compromise the legitimate interests of the user and, when appropriate, to observe the rule of professional secrecy;
(g) stipulate that, subject to the prerogatives of the author of the original work translated, no changes shall be made in the text of a translation intended for publication without seeking the prior agreement of the translator;
(h) assure the translator and his translation similar publicity, proportionately to that which authors are generally given, in particular, the name of the author of the translation should appear in a prominent place on all published copies of the translation, on theatre bills, in announcements made in connexion with radio or television broadcasts, in the credit titles of films and in any other promotional material;
(i) provide that the user ensure that the translation bear such notices as are necessary to comply with copyright formalities in those countries where it might reasonably be expected to be used;
(j) provide for the resolution of any conflicts which may arise, particularly with respect to the quality of the translation, so far as possible, by means of arbitration or in accordance with procedures laid down by national legislation or by any other appropriate means of dispute settlement which on the one hand is such as to guarantee impartiality and on the other hand is easily accessible and inexpensive;
(k) mention the languages from and into which the translator will translate and without prejudice to the provisions of paragraph 1 (a), further specify expressly the translator's possible use as an interpreter.
6. In order to facilitate the implementation of the measures recommended in paragraphs 4, 5 and 14, Member States should, without prejudice to the translator's freedom to enter into an individual contract, encourage the parties concerned, in particular the professional organizations of translators and other organizations or associations representing them, on the one hand, and the representatives of users, on the other, to adopt model contracts or to conclude collective agreements based on the measures suggested in this Recommendation and making due allowance for all situations likely to arise by reason either of the translator or of the nature of the translation.
7. Member States should also promote measures to ensure effective representation of translators and to encourage the creation and development of professional organizations of translators and other organizations or associations representing them, to define the rules and duties which should govern the exercise of the profession, to defend the moral and material interests of translators and to facilitate linguistic, cultural, scientific and technical exchanges among translators and between translators and the authors of works to be translated. To this end, such organizations or associations might undertake, where national law permits, in particular, the following specific activities:
(a) promote the adoption of standards governing the translating profession; such standards should stipulate in particular that the translator has a duty to provide a translation of high quality from both the linguistic and stylistic points of view and to guarantee that the translation will be a faithful rendering of the original;
(b) study the bases for remuneration acceptable to translators and users;
(c) set up procedures to assist in the settlement of disputes arising in connexion with the quality of translations;
(d) advise translators in their negotiations with users and co-operate with other interested parties in establishing model contracts relating to translation;
(e) endeavour to arrange for translators individually or collectively, and in accordance with national laws or any collective agreements which may be applicable on this subject, to benefit with authors from funds received from either private or public sources;
(f) provide for exchanges of information on matters of interest to translators by the publication of information bulletins, the organization of meetings or by other appropriate means;
(g) promote the assimilation of translators, from the point of view of social benefits and taxation, to authors of literary or scientific works, including technical works;
(h) promote the establishment and development of specialized programmes for the training of translators;
(i) co-operate with other national, regional or international bodies working to promote the interests of translators, and with any national or regional copyright information centres set up to assist in the clearance of rights in works protected by copyright, as well as with the Unesco International Copyright Information Centre;
(j) maintain close contacts with users, as well as with their representatives or professional organizations or associations, in order to defend the interests of translators; and negotiate collective agreements with such representatives or organizations or associations where deemed advantageous;
(k) contribute generally to the development of the translating profession.
8. Without prejudice to paragraph 7, membership of professional organizations or associations which represent translators should not, however, be a necessary condition for protection, since the provisions of this Recommendation should apply to all translators, whether or not they are members of such organizations or associations.
IV. SOCIAL AND FISCAL SITUATION OF TRANSLATORS
9. Translators working as independent writers, whether or not they are paid by royalties, should benefit in practice from any social insurance schemes relating to retirement, illness, family allowances, etc., and from any taxation arrangements, generally applicable to the authors of literary or scientific works, including technical works.
10. Salaried translators should be treated on the same basis as other salaried professional staff and benefit accordingly from the social schemes provided for them. In this respect, professional statutes, collective agreements and contracts of employment based thereon should mention expressly the class of translators of scientific and technical texts, so that their status as translators may be recognized, particularly with respect to their professional classification.
V. TRAINING AND WORKING CONDITIONS OF TRANSLATORS
11. Member States should recognize in principle that translation is an independent discipline requiring an education distinct from exclusively language teaching and that this discipline requires special training. Member States should encourage the establishment of writing programmes for translators, especially in connexion with translators' professional organizations or associations, universities or other educational institutions, and the organization of seminars or workshops. It should also be recognized that it is useful for translators to be able to benefit from continuing education courses.
12. Member States should consider organizing terminology centres which might be encouraged to undertake the following activities:
(a) communicating to translators current information concerning terminology required by them in the general course of their work;
(b) collaborating closely with terminology centres throughout the world with a view to standardizing and developing the internationalization of scientific and technical terminology so as to facilitate the task of translators.
13. In association with professional organizations or associations and other interested parties, Member States should facilitate exchanges of translators between different countries, so as to allow them to improve their knowledge of the language from which they work and of the socio-cultural context in which the works to be translated by them are written.
14. With a view to improving the quality of translations, the following principles and practical measures should be expressly recognized in professional statutes mentioned under sub-paragraph 7 (a) and in any other written agreements between the translators and the users:
(a) translators should be given a reasonable period of time to accomplish their work;
(b) any documents and information necessary for the understanding of the text to be translated and the drafting of the translation should, so far as possible, be made available to translators;
(c) as a general rule, a translation should be made from the original work, recourse being had to retranslation only where absolutely necessary;
(d) a translator should, as far as possible, translate into his own mother tongue or into a language of which he or she has a mastery equal to that of his or her mother tongue.
VI. DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
15. The principles and norms set forth in this Recommendation may be adapted by developing countries in any way deemed necessary to help them meet their requirements, and in the light of the special provisions for the benefit of developing countries introduced in the Universal Copyright Convention as revised at Paris on 24 July 1971 and the Paris Act (1971) of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works.
VII. FINAL PROVISION
16. Where translators and translations enjoy a level of protection which is, in certain respects, more favourable than that provided for in this Recommendation, its provisions should not be invoked to diminish the protection already acquired.
Wednesday, September 29, 2010
Wednesday, June 09, 2010
P. Newmark: Tips on Translation
Peter Newmark
Tips on translation
This is didactic review of translation procedures and techniques reviewed by Peter Newmark in his 80`s work Approaches to Translation. Notes have been added for examples and related subjects.
Previous, general analysis of a text for translation:
a. Intention of the text
b. Intention of the translator
c. Reader and setting of the text
d. Quality of the writing and authority of the text
Emphasis: The translator having to handle grammar and emphasis often notes a tension between natural (unmarked) and an emphatic (marked) construction, often evidence by a different world order.
Ex: Meinen Freund hat er begrüsst
He actually greeted my friend
Note: Emphasis is often marked in English by italics, as above. Repetition of adverbs is also a way to mark emphasis:
She was very, very happy
Emphasis is often marked by word order in Spanish, as in the distinction A ella la vio primero. Primero la vio a ella.
Tips on translation
1. Equivalent frequency of usage.
This is an additional method of verifying a translation. General usage, formality and afectivity need to be respected. Although semantic equivalence is a basic principle of translation, it can only exists if there is the maximum equivalence of form and frequency in usage.
Example: No tengo ni idea cannot be translated as I have no premonition in English, because it violates these levels of usage in the TL.
2. Words outside their normal contexts
These words should be assumed to have been used in their primary or most common sense. As in the translation of
3. Back-translation test
Also a translation verification. The translated text is rendered back to SL, to check for semantics and frequency.
Example:
4. National characteristics
Newmark recommends to leave untranslated conceptual terms which notoriously belong to certain languages, like: fairness, humour, sympatique, Gemütlichkeit, mañana, esprit,etc.
5. When and when not to repeat a word
A lexical item repeated in the same or following sentence of the source langauage text must be correspondingly repeated in the target language text, unless the original is poorly or loosely written.
6. Referential synonyms:
These are stylistic references to people (The Iron Lady), places (La perla del norte), epochs or temporal references (Blitzkrieg). The translator is entitled to replace them by proper names or other, if the information is superflous and the writing has no stylistic value. We can add also that these references much of the time come from a sense of synonymy which can be unintelligible to foreign readers, as in El chino de Vitacura.
7.Cultural allusions in non-expressive text
As above, a translator should not reproduce allusions, in particular if they are peculiar to the source language culture, which translation text readers are unlikely to understand. If they are not central to the text, it is better to avoid them.
8. Alternative terms:
When a source language text has alternative terms for an object, and the target language only one term, the translator normally uses the one term only. If, however, one of the two source terms has a special interest, being technical, archaic and particularly “transparent” in its descriptiveness, the translator should take some account of it, usually by reproducing it, in brackets in the text, or in the notes with an explanation.
Examples: Group, rather than band, party, coallition or club.
9. Titles
A title is best left unstranslated until the rest of the assigment is completed. Informative or figurative titles can then be checked against the sum of the content. English titles tend to be shorter than others.
Example: Bats , a title in English, was translated into Spanish as Murciélagos: una especie interesante, in a general text which described this animal in a very positive way.
10. Almost empty words
Most languages have some lexical and grammatical features of low semantic content which may have no equivalent in the target language, there is often no need for the translator to take account of them. As in Spanish ya, resulta, o sea, and in English, verbs such as put, go, get, come keep, let, make, take, be, etc.
11. Quotations
When a quotation fro another source (speech, book, etc.) is included in the source language text, itshould normally be rendered more literally than the rest of the text. The translator is not responsible for its “functional equivalence”, since it is not addressed to the reader of the target language text. It is own “authority”, and the translator must take no liberties with its formal elements.
Note: For quotations from identifiable source, the translator should look for a recognized, well know translation. For example, in the case of quotations from well-known literary works, such as Shakespeare’s lines, the translator may choose an already translated version of the works in the relevant language. Here, research is a must.
12. The text and the notes
If one is translating important information which is likely to puzzle the proposed reader, it is better to write the background into the text to make it meaningful rather than as a note. The information should be inserted unobstrusively.
An example of this are references to facts who might be unknown to readers of different historical time, such as a translation of Perestroika, a political action in the former Soviet Union just before its reorganization. One should insert as short reference to its meaning or historical situation if one judges that this item may be difficult to understand by contemporary readers.
13. Third language proper nouns or words.
When the SL text mentions a non-SL surname, or a word in a third language, the translator should always chek it for spelling in its original language.
14. Deletion
Theoretically, the translator has to render every portion and aspect of cognitive and pragmatic sense in the SL text. In fact, the translator is justified in eliminating redundancy in poorly written informational texts, in particular jargon, provided it is not used for emphasis, (or stylistic effect). For example, sometimes it is necessary to delete connecting words used to mark continuation or slight contrast at the beginning of a sentence, such as in Spanish entonces, luego, ahora bien. This connecting items belong to the fatic function of language.
15. Text writer’s idiolect
In mainly informational texts, it is legitimate to ignore the writer’s repeated idiolectal pecularities.
One of 500 words in any text is likely to be used in a faulty or idiosyncratic sense. Unless the text is an important document or is written by an important writer, the translator should normalize the error or idiosyncrasy.
Nota: Idiolect is defined as “a person's own personal language, the words they choose and any other features that characterise their speech and writing. Some people have distinctive features in their language; these would be part of their idiolect, their individual linguistic choices and idiosyncrasies”, in Using English.com
16.Terms of art variants
Terms of art are usually the invariant elements in translation, but within a language they may have several variants. Illnesses, for instance, occasionally have three: the layman’s, the doctor’s, and the specialist’s classical term (e.g. ringworm, tinea, tinea circinata, or tiña, in Spanish). Terms should be matched according to text purpose, but in English, long, complex names are usually avoided: halitosis might be less understood than foul breath.
17. Similes and images
Any simile, image or comparison should usually be as familiar to the TL as to the SL reader. Sometimes this requires adjustment.
Note : “A simile is a comparison between two different things, designed to create an unusual, interesting, emotional or other effect often using word such as 'like' or 'as ... as'.
Common comparisons are with the qualities associated with animals (as sly as a fox, as brave as a lion, etc.).
Figure of Speech is where a word or words are used to create an effect, but where they do not have their original or literal meaning.
If someone says that they are 'starving', they do not mean that they are in fact dying of hunger, but that they are very hungry. This is a simple example of a figure of speech, where the word is used to heighten or increase the state that they are describing. A metaphor or a simile are two of the most common forms used”. (From UsingEnglish.com )
18. Tone
The tone of a passage is the key to its communicative effect, and has to be determined by the translator. Tentativeness, urgency, menace, flattery, persuasiveness all have certain markers which are more apparent in the syntax than in the lexis, and may be reflected in the tense, mood and voice of a few significant verbs. “¿Diga?” may say a Spanish speaking shopkeeper, meaning “How can I serve you?”. Other markers may be emotive words, or absurdly unreal references: e.g. “If you don’t get this right, I’ll push your head into the radiator!”.
Also the use of modals may set the tone of a passage, such uses of will, should, must.
Example: El propietario deberá limpiar su vereda, should be translated using a modal such as will or must,depending on the nature of the notice.
19. Referring
One assumes that a translator looks up any word about whose meaning, in the context, he may have the slightest doubt; that any reference to a bilingual dictionary is only preliminary to a check in two or three monolingual dictionaries, which indicate:
a) modern usage
b) appropiate register
c) a range of collocations
d) degree of frequency, formality, emotiveness, generality, intensity and approval.
The translator is to be careful with any type of cognate, false or true, which has not been met before, particularly if its apparent meaning makes good sense in the context—it may even havethe same meaning as its TL “equivalent”, but a different rate of frequency (e.g. adecuado, fenómeno, realidad).
The translator should also consider a range of technical or academic terms for the same phenomenon (as in the case of names for illnesses), according to standard register in the equivalent TL context. If no equivalent can be found, he may have to use an academic term, which is likely to be an internationalism. Thus, if a “painted lady” (a butterfly) does not exist in the TL, he has to use the learned term Vanessa cardui (which is the Webster’s Dictionnary)
Further, in investigating proper nouns and terms of arte (technically specific), he will look particularly at the type of reference book (or other, such as web material), which defines concept and procedures, and which pays as much attention to the connotation as the denotation of all proper nouns.
20. Proper names connotation
Where proper names are treated purely connotatively, e.g. “He is a Croessus”, “She’s a Niobe”, the proper name is normally translated by its connotation, unless it also has the same sense in the TL. The proper name should be analysed in its semantic traits, as it may be used in variants of its connotative meaning: e.g. Midas may mean wealthy, increasing his wealth, or unable to enjoy his wealth. A case in point in Chilean Spanish in Chile is the popular Juan Perez.
Proper name are translated if they are recognizable in the Christian world: John, Juan, Paul, Pablo. In the case of name of famous artists, philosophers, etc., naturalization is possible: Michelangelo, Titian, Machiavelli, Ovid, Sappho, Phillip, Homer. Modern names are translated if very famous (art and History figures) Anne Boleyn, Coeur de Lyon, Baggins. Names of characters in plays are translated usually if they are not key to the meaning of the play, as in Hamlet. Also translate names in fairy stories (but, again, beware names with identity tones, such as Mowgly, Rapunzel): Cinderella, Snow-white. The names of streets and plazas, etc., are not generally translated, depending on their relevance to text and culture: Picadilly Circus, 10 Downing Street, Wall Street, but Quinta Avenida, for 5th Ave., in New York City. Translate forms of address, such as Don Pedro, etc. Remember married names of women follow husband’s family name. Beware Royalty terms of address. Professional names such as Doctor Gonzalez, are usually translated by Mr in English.
Geographical names may be naturalized: Cornualles, Londres. Sometimes a place may carry more than one name: Lake Constance, same as Bodensee in Greman. Mainz: Maguncia; Firenze: Florencia, Florence. If remote or unknown, names should be kept: Djibouti, Fiume. Always check for spelling in the original languages. Connotation of names should checked, when possible: Pisagua, Tiananmen. The translator should account for them for a reader who might not know them: Treblinka, Ruanda, Villa Grimaldi.
Firms, private institutions, schools, universities, hospitas are not translated when transparent: Ministerio de Salud, Ministry of Finance, Central Office, Westminster bank. Multinational companies may have various names, if the reader needs specific information.
Newspapers, journals and periodicals are transcribed ( not translated): Der Spiegel, The Sun, The Times, El País. Obsolete or old names are kept: Caja de Empleados Públicos, Ancien Régime, camara oscura. For these old terms, a glossary may prove necessary: Casa de Niños Expósitos, La Gota de Leche.
International Institutions have official, translated names: OTAN, OMS., or use acronyms: UNICEF, UNCTAD.
Names of religious institutions or titles, positions, etc. Holy See, Vicar, Cura Párroco. Also names of political organizations: conjunto, convención, interventor, regimen, dieta (parl), plataforma, las bases, sectorial, socio comercial, libre comercio, Fondo, etc. Translate into authorized, known translation. Sometimes the original name might err in the style and scope of concept: mesa de diálogo, oficina de reparación, government agency
Council.
21. Lengthy titles
These can be sometimes nicely translated by making them into double titles and reversing the order of words, e.g. for Contribución anatómico-quirúrgica sobre la posibilidad y los limites de la vagotomía supradiafragmática en la terapia de la úlcera duodenal put “Advantages and limitations of supradiaphragmatic vagotomy in the treatment of duodenal ulcers; an anatomical and surgical appoach”.
Headings and titles should be translated last. A non-literary text or book should normally be factually and accurately described by its title. A literary text may have its title changed to an appropiate connotation. Usually, the translator has control obver the title of any text.
Note. Titles can be translated by informative, referential means or by figurative use of language, according to the text style and readership.
22. Synonymous adjectives in collocation
These often become clichés which are better translated by adverb plus adjective: thus, fit and proper, especialmente adecuado; neat and tidy, muy ordenados; dreadful and awful, sumamente espantoso. When they do not become clichés, they should be distinguished.
Note: a cliché is a phrase that has been overused and has become meaningless and sometimes irritating.
23. Unfamiliar acronyms
A translator can approach an unfamiliar acronym in two ways: (1), by searching in dictionaries of abbreviations, pharmacopeias (for drugs), (2) by considering context and probability. Further on, Newmark also states that much of the information about these acronyms can be derived from the text itself. A translator normally is not entitled to create TL acronyms, and should convert any ad hoc SL acronyms into TL words. Some examples: TB, TNT, DTs, STD, VD, a.k.a, RIP, AWOL.
24. Not found
If a non-literary translator fails to find a SL word in any literature, he usually (a) translates in line with the context, and (b) states what he has done and in his estimation the degree of likelihood that his translation is correct. But (bI) is not always necessary for an unfamiliarly or newly compounded word. If in a dictionary or encyclopaedia one finds a word where one is refrerred to a second word for its definition, one normally assumes that the second word is more common, and there fore uses it rather than the first word in a translation. Thus “tubercular analysis, tuberculous patient” not “tuberculous analysis, tubercular patient”, although the two words are ocasionally interchangeable. Similarly, “limphocytic leukaemia”, not “limphatic leukaemia”.
24. Extension of expression
Romance language past participles and near-past participles such as incomplet, imparfait sometimes have to carry more meaning than they appear to, and translate as “not yet completed”, “which does not give satisfactory results”, respectively.
25. Key-words in literature
In imaginative writing all key-words acquire symbolical value, and become potential metaphors grounded in the culture. Like key-words in a technology, they are suddenly forced to bear figurative meaning. When such words are translated they may have to be supported with an attribute unless there is strong cultural overlap between source and target language countries.
26. Paraphrase
Paraphrase is the last (but sometimes necessary)resort of the translator
27. Transcription
This concerns loan words, transferred words, adopted words.
Transcription is mandatory in all the following cases, unless thee is already a generally accepted translation likely to be accessible and acceptable to the reader:
(a) proper nouns —particularly names of people (except the Pope) and of geographical features
(b) addresses;
(c) name of private firms;
(d) names of national public and private institutions, unless they are transparent;
(e) terms peculiar to the institution, ecology and general culture of the SL countries, where there are no equivalents in the TL countries; and
(f) titles of newspapers, periodicals, books, plays, films, articles, papers, works of art, musical composition
Note: In the case of world known items which have a well known translation (Noche de Epifanía, Twelfth Night), the translator should use this.
The temptation to translate for the first time names of institutions which are “transparent” in the SL should be resisted, since some such names, e.g. The London Clinic, may or may not be misleading cognates.
28. Repetition
a. Poor style in Spanish
b. Accepted in English
c. Use synonymy
29. Shift of perception scale.
El blanco de los Andes
El gris de Santiago
Snowwhite, dull pavement. Brazilian tapestry might be translated as Aquarela brasileira, in Portuguese, which will be more percetively coherent to the way Brasilians describe their landscape.
30. Typical phenomena:
Pub, bistro, Fuente de Soda, Soda Fountain, Club (England), Football (USA), shelter, -way (toll, free-).
31. Blends: combination of 2 words. Sometime they become internationally known, such meritocracia, ecoclubs. Some are borrowed or adopted: motel, infomercial. Translate if they unrecognizable only: amistocracia, dedocracia, tarúpido.
32. Semantic blends: old words with new meanings are sometimes difficult to translate: gay, credible, viable, sophisticated; region, villa, campamento. Also some abreviation of common words should result in difficult translation: vibes, combo, vegan, sci-tech; la u, la muni, la micro, the tube. In this case, words should be normalized to sense, unless there are recognizable or familiar equivalents, such as bus or metro
33. Newrmark tips on the equilibrium of the translation process, stating the method applied and its frequency:
(a) one-to-one wherever possible (synonymy)
(b) one to two or three
(c) Recast of structure, for fluency (as is the case in clauses introduced by when, while, if)
Tips on translation
This is didactic review of translation procedures and techniques reviewed by Peter Newmark in his 80`s work Approaches to Translation. Notes have been added for examples and related subjects.
Previous, general analysis of a text for translation:
a. Intention of the text
b. Intention of the translator
c. Reader and setting of the text
d. Quality of the writing and authority of the text
Emphasis: The translator having to handle grammar and emphasis often notes a tension between natural (unmarked) and an emphatic (marked) construction, often evidence by a different world order.
Ex: Meinen Freund hat er begrüsst
He actually greeted my friend
Note: Emphasis is often marked in English by italics, as above. Repetition of adverbs is also a way to mark emphasis:
She was very, very happy
Emphasis is often marked by word order in Spanish, as in the distinction A ella la vio primero. Primero la vio a ella.
Tips on translation
1. Equivalent frequency of usage.
This is an additional method of verifying a translation. General usage, formality and afectivity need to be respected. Although semantic equivalence is a basic principle of translation, it can only exists if there is the maximum equivalence of form and frequency in usage.
Example: No tengo ni idea cannot be translated as I have no premonition in English, because it violates these levels of usage in the TL.
2. Words outside their normal contexts
These words should be assumed to have been used in their primary or most common sense. As in the translation of
3. Back-translation test
Also a translation verification. The translated text is rendered back to SL, to check for semantics and frequency.
Example:
4. National characteristics
Newmark recommends to leave untranslated conceptual terms which notoriously belong to certain languages, like: fairness, humour, sympatique, Gemütlichkeit, mañana, esprit,etc.
5. When and when not to repeat a word
A lexical item repeated in the same or following sentence of the source langauage text must be correspondingly repeated in the target language text, unless the original is poorly or loosely written.
6. Referential synonyms:
These are stylistic references to people (The Iron Lady), places (La perla del norte), epochs or temporal references (Blitzkrieg). The translator is entitled to replace them by proper names or other, if the information is superflous and the writing has no stylistic value. We can add also that these references much of the time come from a sense of synonymy which can be unintelligible to foreign readers, as in El chino de Vitacura.
7.Cultural allusions in non-expressive text
As above, a translator should not reproduce allusions, in particular if they are peculiar to the source language culture, which translation text readers are unlikely to understand. If they are not central to the text, it is better to avoid them.
8. Alternative terms:
When a source language text has alternative terms for an object, and the target language only one term, the translator normally uses the one term only. If, however, one of the two source terms has a special interest, being technical, archaic and particularly “transparent” in its descriptiveness, the translator should take some account of it, usually by reproducing it, in brackets in the text, or in the notes with an explanation.
Examples: Group, rather than band, party, coallition or club.
9. Titles
A title is best left unstranslated until the rest of the assigment is completed. Informative or figurative titles can then be checked against the sum of the content. English titles tend to be shorter than others.
Example: Bats , a title in English, was translated into Spanish as Murciélagos: una especie interesante, in a general text which described this animal in a very positive way.
10. Almost empty words
Most languages have some lexical and grammatical features of low semantic content which may have no equivalent in the target language, there is often no need for the translator to take account of them. As in Spanish ya, resulta, o sea, and in English, verbs such as put, go, get, come keep, let, make, take, be, etc.
11. Quotations
When a quotation fro another source (speech, book, etc.) is included in the source language text, itshould normally be rendered more literally than the rest of the text. The translator is not responsible for its “functional equivalence”, since it is not addressed to the reader of the target language text. It is own “authority”, and the translator must take no liberties with its formal elements.
Note: For quotations from identifiable source, the translator should look for a recognized, well know translation. For example, in the case of quotations from well-known literary works, such as Shakespeare’s lines, the translator may choose an already translated version of the works in the relevant language. Here, research is a must.
12. The text and the notes
If one is translating important information which is likely to puzzle the proposed reader, it is better to write the background into the text to make it meaningful rather than as a note. The information should be inserted unobstrusively.
An example of this are references to facts who might be unknown to readers of different historical time, such as a translation of Perestroika, a political action in the former Soviet Union just before its reorganization. One should insert as short reference to its meaning or historical situation if one judges that this item may be difficult to understand by contemporary readers.
13. Third language proper nouns or words.
When the SL text mentions a non-SL surname, or a word in a third language, the translator should always chek it for spelling in its original language.
14. Deletion
Theoretically, the translator has to render every portion and aspect of cognitive and pragmatic sense in the SL text. In fact, the translator is justified in eliminating redundancy in poorly written informational texts, in particular jargon, provided it is not used for emphasis, (or stylistic effect). For example, sometimes it is necessary to delete connecting words used to mark continuation or slight contrast at the beginning of a sentence, such as in Spanish entonces, luego, ahora bien. This connecting items belong to the fatic function of language.
15. Text writer’s idiolect
In mainly informational texts, it is legitimate to ignore the writer’s repeated idiolectal pecularities.
One of 500 words in any text is likely to be used in a faulty or idiosyncratic sense. Unless the text is an important document or is written by an important writer, the translator should normalize the error or idiosyncrasy.
Nota: Idiolect is defined as “a person's own personal language, the words they choose and any other features that characterise their speech and writing. Some people have distinctive features in their language; these would be part of their idiolect, their individual linguistic choices and idiosyncrasies”, in Using English.com
16.Terms of art variants
Terms of art are usually the invariant elements in translation, but within a language they may have several variants. Illnesses, for instance, occasionally have three: the layman’s, the doctor’s, and the specialist’s classical term (e.g. ringworm, tinea, tinea circinata, or tiña, in Spanish). Terms should be matched according to text purpose, but in English, long, complex names are usually avoided: halitosis might be less understood than foul breath.
17. Similes and images
Any simile, image or comparison should usually be as familiar to the TL as to the SL reader. Sometimes this requires adjustment.
Note : “A simile is a comparison between two different things, designed to create an unusual, interesting, emotional or other effect often using word such as 'like' or 'as ... as'.
Common comparisons are with the qualities associated with animals (as sly as a fox, as brave as a lion, etc.).
Figure of Speech is where a word or words are used to create an effect, but where they do not have their original or literal meaning.
If someone says that they are 'starving', they do not mean that they are in fact dying of hunger, but that they are very hungry. This is a simple example of a figure of speech, where the word is used to heighten or increase the state that they are describing. A metaphor or a simile are two of the most common forms used”. (From UsingEnglish.com )
18. Tone
The tone of a passage is the key to its communicative effect, and has to be determined by the translator. Tentativeness, urgency, menace, flattery, persuasiveness all have certain markers which are more apparent in the syntax than in the lexis, and may be reflected in the tense, mood and voice of a few significant verbs. “¿Diga?” may say a Spanish speaking shopkeeper, meaning “How can I serve you?”. Other markers may be emotive words, or absurdly unreal references: e.g. “If you don’t get this right, I’ll push your head into the radiator!”.
Also the use of modals may set the tone of a passage, such uses of will, should, must.
Example: El propietario deberá limpiar su vereda, should be translated using a modal such as will or must,depending on the nature of the notice.
19. Referring
One assumes that a translator looks up any word about whose meaning, in the context, he may have the slightest doubt; that any reference to a bilingual dictionary is only preliminary to a check in two or three monolingual dictionaries, which indicate:
a) modern usage
b) appropiate register
c) a range of collocations
d) degree of frequency, formality, emotiveness, generality, intensity and approval.
The translator is to be careful with any type of cognate, false or true, which has not been met before, particularly if its apparent meaning makes good sense in the context—it may even havethe same meaning as its TL “equivalent”, but a different rate of frequency (e.g. adecuado, fenómeno, realidad).
The translator should also consider a range of technical or academic terms for the same phenomenon (as in the case of names for illnesses), according to standard register in the equivalent TL context. If no equivalent can be found, he may have to use an academic term, which is likely to be an internationalism. Thus, if a “painted lady” (a butterfly) does not exist in the TL, he has to use the learned term Vanessa cardui (which is the Webster’s Dictionnary)
Further, in investigating proper nouns and terms of arte (technically specific), he will look particularly at the type of reference book (or other, such as web material), which defines concept and procedures, and which pays as much attention to the connotation as the denotation of all proper nouns.
20. Proper names connotation
Where proper names are treated purely connotatively, e.g. “He is a Croessus”, “She’s a Niobe”, the proper name is normally translated by its connotation, unless it also has the same sense in the TL. The proper name should be analysed in its semantic traits, as it may be used in variants of its connotative meaning: e.g. Midas may mean wealthy, increasing his wealth, or unable to enjoy his wealth. A case in point in Chilean Spanish in Chile is the popular Juan Perez.
Proper name are translated if they are recognizable in the Christian world: John, Juan, Paul, Pablo. In the case of name of famous artists, philosophers, etc., naturalization is possible: Michelangelo, Titian, Machiavelli, Ovid, Sappho, Phillip, Homer. Modern names are translated if very famous (art and History figures) Anne Boleyn, Coeur de Lyon, Baggins. Names of characters in plays are translated usually if they are not key to the meaning of the play, as in Hamlet. Also translate names in fairy stories (but, again, beware names with identity tones, such as Mowgly, Rapunzel): Cinderella, Snow-white. The names of streets and plazas, etc., are not generally translated, depending on their relevance to text and culture: Picadilly Circus, 10 Downing Street, Wall Street, but Quinta Avenida, for 5th Ave., in New York City. Translate forms of address, such as Don Pedro, etc. Remember married names of women follow husband’s family name. Beware Royalty terms of address. Professional names such as Doctor Gonzalez, are usually translated by Mr in English.
Geographical names may be naturalized: Cornualles, Londres. Sometimes a place may carry more than one name: Lake Constance, same as Bodensee in Greman. Mainz: Maguncia; Firenze: Florencia, Florence. If remote or unknown, names should be kept: Djibouti, Fiume. Always check for spelling in the original languages. Connotation of names should checked, when possible: Pisagua, Tiananmen. The translator should account for them for a reader who might not know them: Treblinka, Ruanda, Villa Grimaldi.
Firms, private institutions, schools, universities, hospitas are not translated when transparent: Ministerio de Salud, Ministry of Finance, Central Office, Westminster bank. Multinational companies may have various names, if the reader needs specific information.
Newspapers, journals and periodicals are transcribed ( not translated): Der Spiegel, The Sun, The Times, El País. Obsolete or old names are kept: Caja de Empleados Públicos, Ancien Régime, camara oscura. For these old terms, a glossary may prove necessary: Casa de Niños Expósitos, La Gota de Leche.
International Institutions have official, translated names: OTAN, OMS., or use acronyms: UNICEF, UNCTAD.
Names of religious institutions or titles, positions, etc. Holy See, Vicar, Cura Párroco. Also names of political organizations: conjunto, convención, interventor, regimen, dieta (parl), plataforma, las bases, sectorial, socio comercial, libre comercio, Fondo, etc. Translate into authorized, known translation. Sometimes the original name might err in the style and scope of concept: mesa de diálogo, oficina de reparación, government agency
Council.
21. Lengthy titles
These can be sometimes nicely translated by making them into double titles and reversing the order of words, e.g. for Contribución anatómico-quirúrgica sobre la posibilidad y los limites de la vagotomía supradiafragmática en la terapia de la úlcera duodenal put “Advantages and limitations of supradiaphragmatic vagotomy in the treatment of duodenal ulcers; an anatomical and surgical appoach”.
Headings and titles should be translated last. A non-literary text or book should normally be factually and accurately described by its title. A literary text may have its title changed to an appropiate connotation. Usually, the translator has control obver the title of any text.
Note. Titles can be translated by informative, referential means or by figurative use of language, according to the text style and readership.
22. Synonymous adjectives in collocation
These often become clichés which are better translated by adverb plus adjective: thus, fit and proper, especialmente adecuado; neat and tidy, muy ordenados; dreadful and awful, sumamente espantoso. When they do not become clichés, they should be distinguished.
Note: a cliché is a phrase that has been overused and has become meaningless and sometimes irritating.
23. Unfamiliar acronyms
A translator can approach an unfamiliar acronym in two ways: (1), by searching in dictionaries of abbreviations, pharmacopeias (for drugs), (2) by considering context and probability. Further on, Newmark also states that much of the information about these acronyms can be derived from the text itself. A translator normally is not entitled to create TL acronyms, and should convert any ad hoc SL acronyms into TL words. Some examples: TB, TNT, DTs, STD, VD, a.k.a, RIP, AWOL.
24. Not found
If a non-literary translator fails to find a SL word in any literature, he usually (a) translates in line with the context, and (b) states what he has done and in his estimation the degree of likelihood that his translation is correct. But (bI) is not always necessary for an unfamiliarly or newly compounded word. If in a dictionary or encyclopaedia one finds a word where one is refrerred to a second word for its definition, one normally assumes that the second word is more common, and there fore uses it rather than the first word in a translation. Thus “tubercular analysis, tuberculous patient” not “tuberculous analysis, tubercular patient”, although the two words are ocasionally interchangeable. Similarly, “limphocytic leukaemia”, not “limphatic leukaemia”.
24. Extension of expression
Romance language past participles and near-past participles such as incomplet, imparfait sometimes have to carry more meaning than they appear to, and translate as “not yet completed”, “which does not give satisfactory results”, respectively.
25. Key-words in literature
In imaginative writing all key-words acquire symbolical value, and become potential metaphors grounded in the culture. Like key-words in a technology, they are suddenly forced to bear figurative meaning. When such words are translated they may have to be supported with an attribute unless there is strong cultural overlap between source and target language countries.
26. Paraphrase
Paraphrase is the last (but sometimes necessary)resort of the translator
27. Transcription
This concerns loan words, transferred words, adopted words.
Transcription is mandatory in all the following cases, unless thee is already a generally accepted translation likely to be accessible and acceptable to the reader:
(a) proper nouns —particularly names of people (except the Pope) and of geographical features
(b) addresses;
(c) name of private firms;
(d) names of national public and private institutions, unless they are transparent;
(e) terms peculiar to the institution, ecology and general culture of the SL countries, where there are no equivalents in the TL countries; and
(f) titles of newspapers, periodicals, books, plays, films, articles, papers, works of art, musical composition
Note: In the case of world known items which have a well known translation (Noche de Epifanía, Twelfth Night), the translator should use this.
The temptation to translate for the first time names of institutions which are “transparent” in the SL should be resisted, since some such names, e.g. The London Clinic, may or may not be misleading cognates.
28. Repetition
a. Poor style in Spanish
b. Accepted in English
c. Use synonymy
29. Shift of perception scale.
El blanco de los Andes
El gris de Santiago
Snowwhite, dull pavement. Brazilian tapestry might be translated as Aquarela brasileira, in Portuguese, which will be more percetively coherent to the way Brasilians describe their landscape.
30. Typical phenomena:
Pub, bistro, Fuente de Soda, Soda Fountain, Club (England), Football (USA), shelter, -way (toll, free-).
31. Blends: combination of 2 words. Sometime they become internationally known, such meritocracia, ecoclubs. Some are borrowed or adopted: motel, infomercial. Translate if they unrecognizable only: amistocracia, dedocracia, tarúpido.
32. Semantic blends: old words with new meanings are sometimes difficult to translate: gay, credible, viable, sophisticated; region, villa, campamento. Also some abreviation of common words should result in difficult translation: vibes, combo, vegan, sci-tech; la u, la muni, la micro, the tube. In this case, words should be normalized to sense, unless there are recognizable or familiar equivalents, such as bus or metro
33. Newrmark tips on the equilibrium of the translation process, stating the method applied and its frequency:
(a) one-to-one wherever possible (synonymy)
(b) one to two or three
(c) Recast of structure, for fluency (as is the case in clauses introduced by when, while, if)
PeterNewmark: Procedimientos Técnicos
TÉCNICAS DE TRADUCCIÓN SEGÚN PETER NEWMARK
A continuación se expone un conjunto de procedimientos establecidos para analizar, describir o solucionar casos de traducción establecidos por Peter Newmark en varias de sus obras sobre teoría y práctica de la traducción. (V. A Textbook of Translation, 1987)
• Se habla de transcripción (transcription), denominándose así procesos que Vinay y Darbelnet habían propuesto como entidades aisladas dentro del proceso de traducción literal. Dentro de la transcripción se entienden procesos de asimilación, préstamo y calco.
El préstamo (borrowing) se produce cuando una lengua integra un componente léxico de otra que antes no poseía. Estos préstamos presentan distintos grados de asimilacion, como en los casos en que se mantiene una morfología igual a la lengua de origen: Weltanschauung, look, pop. Otros van asimilándose cada vez más a la lengua meta: elite, que ya ha perdido su grafía original francesa élite; hasta encontrar los totalmente integrados y que son parte de la formación diacrónica de las lenguas: iglú. Existen también elementos de préstamos que provienen de alfabetos diferentes: te, kibutz. En otros casos, se integra una parte del elemento léxico: pantimedia, testear.
Los estudiosos afirman que el origen de los préstamos tiene que ver con la cercanía de las comunidades lingüísticas, el peso de lenguas con mayor prestigio cultural (como es el caso del inglés), la adquisición de objetos y su nombre desde otras culturas, cassette, by pass, walkman.
Calco es traducción e integración léxica a una lengua meta. Se produce por falta de equivalentes o afines, por lo que se traducen directamente con elementos ya existentes: jardín de infantes, ciencia-ficción, OVNI. El proceso también puede darse a nivel de contenido semántico, como es el caso de planta, en su acepción de usina, que sería una integración del significado de plant, del inglés.
• Traducción uno-a-uno: Traducción donde coinciden los ítemes en un orden y cantidad que no altera el sentido: por ejemplo, la casa, the house.
• Sinonimia lexical: La traducción se realiza utilizando un equivalente cercano de L2. Por ejemplo, en el caso de objetos comunes a ambas culturas, casa, ventana; cualidades generales, grande, frío.
• Análisis semántico: Si los significados son más específicos, el traductor puede recurrir a una descomposición del léxico en componentes semánticos, o semas, para luego comparar y relacionar con el contexto de L2. Por medio de este análisis se puede llegar a una serie de sinónimos, estableciendo diferencias mínimas de significados.
El análisis semántico se realiza preferentemente dentro de un campo semántico, que es un conjunto de ítems lexicales y significados. Por ejemplo, el conjunto de muebles utilizados para sentarse. El traductor puede utilizar este análisis para :
a) traducir un término de L1 en dos o más términos de L2, mediante una distribución de sus componentes a un alcance mucho mayor: double decker
b) distinguir los significados de dos sinónimos de L1 organizados en un sintagma, si se enfatizara la distinción en el texto de L1.: La restricción vehicular que afecta a los autos no catalíticos...
c) Analizar el contenido de uno o más términos de L1, dentro de una serie: comidas, ropa, etc. Por ejemplo, camiseta, polera, polerón, beatle.
d) distinguir y llenar vacíos o ambigüedades en el léxico de L2 ocasionados por distancia cultural, dentro de un mismo campo semántico: las distintas denominaciones para el pan en Chile e Inglaterra, etc.
e) analizar neologismos: amartizar.
f) analizar léxico que requiere de definiciones extensas en L2: esprit, attitude, galanura.
h) Desambiguar o reducir a sentido metáforas que siempre presentan dos o más componentes semánticos; comunicación en español: Inglés: “ then came the rain and washed the spider out”. En español el verbo sería llevarse o arrastrar.
• Compensación o compensation: Una pérdida de significación o efecto de sonido o metáfora en una parte del texto se compensa en otra:
L1: Only women with Stage I or Stage II breast cancer and tumours...
L2: Para el estudio, solo se tomó a mujeres con cancer de mama y tumores mamarios.
L1: In recent years, however, the relationship between man and stream, once finely balanced, has increasingly shifted in favour of the river.
L2: Sin embargo, la relación armónica que hubo entre la población y el río ha variado cada vez más en perjuicio de la población en los últimos años.
• En la definición, definition, se recurre a varios elementos lexicales o textuales que puedan expresar mejor el léxico de L1. La definición se apoya en el diccionario y su descripción de léxico, así como en la sinonimia.
L1: Leaky believed this mosaic suggests as he has argued for years, that Johanson was wrong.
L2: Con este conjunto de características, Leaky confirma lo que ha creído por muchos años: Johanson está equivocado.
Por sus posibilidades de extender demasiado el texto de L2, la definición es una aplicación restringida en traducción.
• La traducción propuesta, translation label, se ocupa en casos de una gran complejidad semántica, o neologismos, que requieren de un análisis cuidadoso del contexto y macrocontexto. A menudo va entre comillas.
L1: Indianization, des-indianization
L2: “ Indianización, des-indianización”, se refiere al proceso de migración de las comunidades indígenas en los Departamentos del Perú colonial.
• Expansión gramatical: En ocasiones el traductor debe agregar elementos gramaticales para lograr una equivalencia léxica o cultural más amplia.
L1: Not everyone, however, was fully in favour
L2: Sin embargo, algunos de asistentes estuvieron en desacuerdo
Es necesario considerar que este proceso, obviamente, forma generalmente parte de otros, como algunas paráfrasis, definiciones, etc.
• Reducción gramatical es el proceso inverso a la expansión:
L1: Two foreign envoys ...found fish swimming in their livingrooms
L2: Dos diplomáticos exranjeros encontraron hasta peces en la sala...
• El par técnico, translation couplet, ( mi traducción), es un proceso dual en que la equivalencia literal, es decir, traducción a un primer nivel léxico, de diccionario, o una traducción propuesta, neologismos, se unen al proceso de transcripción. Se utiliza para proponer terminología científica que tienden a generarse en las culturas donde se realizan los desarrollos o descubrimientos científicos. Por ejemplo, en el término medico lumpectomía, original del inglés lumpectomy . Este es el nombre de un proceso quirúrgico para eliminar los tumores mamarios: aquí se presenta un préstamo integrado -lump, nódulo, protuberancia- junto a un componente del griego -tomía. El uso de este léxico se circunscribe a la medicina, en una especialidad específica y un proceso particular con nombre original del inglés.
• Paráfrasis es uno de los últimos recursos del traductor. Mediante su uso, los significados de L1 pueden ser amplificados, redistribuidos o interpretados. Podríamos llamarla traducción libre, en que el traductor aplica indirectamente el significado general de una oración original a su traducción en L2.
L1: The tip of the iceberg
L2: Una pequeña parte del problema
• Traducción institucional, o through-translation , (mi traducción), se refiere a la traducción de nombres institucionales (agencias, documentos, organismos, reglamentaciones oficiales, procesos, etc.) que tienden a tomar nombres universales, como las de Naciones Unidas, campo legal y comercial, etc.
Royal Navy : Real Armada Británica
Volkskammer: Parlamento Alemán
People´s Republic of China : República Popular China
Bundestag: Senado ( de Alemania)
• Reformulación de oraciones o recasting sentences es la traducción de oraciones sintácticamente complejas por alternativas más simples, sin sacrificar el sentido del original.
• Reorganización y mejoramiento: (en el caso de existir jerga, errores, faltas de ortografía, idiolecto, mala redacción, etc.) Estos se justifican solo si el texto SL trata de información factual, o si su edición es defectuosa.
A continuación se expone un conjunto de procedimientos establecidos para analizar, describir o solucionar casos de traducción establecidos por Peter Newmark en varias de sus obras sobre teoría y práctica de la traducción. (V. A Textbook of Translation, 1987)
• Se habla de transcripción (transcription), denominándose así procesos que Vinay y Darbelnet habían propuesto como entidades aisladas dentro del proceso de traducción literal. Dentro de la transcripción se entienden procesos de asimilación, préstamo y calco.
El préstamo (borrowing) se produce cuando una lengua integra un componente léxico de otra que antes no poseía. Estos préstamos presentan distintos grados de asimilacion, como en los casos en que se mantiene una morfología igual a la lengua de origen: Weltanschauung, look, pop. Otros van asimilándose cada vez más a la lengua meta: elite, que ya ha perdido su grafía original francesa élite; hasta encontrar los totalmente integrados y que son parte de la formación diacrónica de las lenguas: iglú. Existen también elementos de préstamos que provienen de alfabetos diferentes: te, kibutz. En otros casos, se integra una parte del elemento léxico: pantimedia, testear.
Los estudiosos afirman que el origen de los préstamos tiene que ver con la cercanía de las comunidades lingüísticas, el peso de lenguas con mayor prestigio cultural (como es el caso del inglés), la adquisición de objetos y su nombre desde otras culturas, cassette, by pass, walkman.
Calco es traducción e integración léxica a una lengua meta. Se produce por falta de equivalentes o afines, por lo que se traducen directamente con elementos ya existentes: jardín de infantes, ciencia-ficción, OVNI. El proceso también puede darse a nivel de contenido semántico, como es el caso de planta, en su acepción de usina, que sería una integración del significado de plant, del inglés.
• Traducción uno-a-uno: Traducción donde coinciden los ítemes en un orden y cantidad que no altera el sentido: por ejemplo, la casa, the house.
• Sinonimia lexical: La traducción se realiza utilizando un equivalente cercano de L2. Por ejemplo, en el caso de objetos comunes a ambas culturas, casa, ventana; cualidades generales, grande, frío.
• Análisis semántico: Si los significados son más específicos, el traductor puede recurrir a una descomposición del léxico en componentes semánticos, o semas, para luego comparar y relacionar con el contexto de L2. Por medio de este análisis se puede llegar a una serie de sinónimos, estableciendo diferencias mínimas de significados.
El análisis semántico se realiza preferentemente dentro de un campo semántico, que es un conjunto de ítems lexicales y significados. Por ejemplo, el conjunto de muebles utilizados para sentarse. El traductor puede utilizar este análisis para :
a) traducir un término de L1 en dos o más términos de L2, mediante una distribución de sus componentes a un alcance mucho mayor: double decker
b) distinguir los significados de dos sinónimos de L1 organizados en un sintagma, si se enfatizara la distinción en el texto de L1.: La restricción vehicular que afecta a los autos no catalíticos...
c) Analizar el contenido de uno o más términos de L1, dentro de una serie: comidas, ropa, etc. Por ejemplo, camiseta, polera, polerón, beatle.
d) distinguir y llenar vacíos o ambigüedades en el léxico de L2 ocasionados por distancia cultural, dentro de un mismo campo semántico: las distintas denominaciones para el pan en Chile e Inglaterra, etc.
e) analizar neologismos: amartizar.
f) analizar léxico que requiere de definiciones extensas en L2: esprit, attitude, galanura.
h) Desambiguar o reducir a sentido metáforas que siempre presentan dos o más componentes semánticos; comunicación en español: Inglés: “ then came the rain and washed the spider out”. En español el verbo sería llevarse o arrastrar.
• Compensación o compensation: Una pérdida de significación o efecto de sonido o metáfora en una parte del texto se compensa en otra:
L1: Only women with Stage I or Stage II breast cancer and tumours...
L2: Para el estudio, solo se tomó a mujeres con cancer de mama y tumores mamarios.
L1: In recent years, however, the relationship between man and stream, once finely balanced, has increasingly shifted in favour of the river.
L2: Sin embargo, la relación armónica que hubo entre la población y el río ha variado cada vez más en perjuicio de la población en los últimos años.
• En la definición, definition, se recurre a varios elementos lexicales o textuales que puedan expresar mejor el léxico de L1. La definición se apoya en el diccionario y su descripción de léxico, así como en la sinonimia.
L1: Leaky believed this mosaic suggests as he has argued for years, that Johanson was wrong.
L2: Con este conjunto de características, Leaky confirma lo que ha creído por muchos años: Johanson está equivocado.
Por sus posibilidades de extender demasiado el texto de L2, la definición es una aplicación restringida en traducción.
• La traducción propuesta, translation label, se ocupa en casos de una gran complejidad semántica, o neologismos, que requieren de un análisis cuidadoso del contexto y macrocontexto. A menudo va entre comillas.
L1: Indianization, des-indianization
L2: “ Indianización, des-indianización”, se refiere al proceso de migración de las comunidades indígenas en los Departamentos del Perú colonial.
• Expansión gramatical: En ocasiones el traductor debe agregar elementos gramaticales para lograr una equivalencia léxica o cultural más amplia.
L1: Not everyone, however, was fully in favour
L2: Sin embargo, algunos de asistentes estuvieron en desacuerdo
Es necesario considerar que este proceso, obviamente, forma generalmente parte de otros, como algunas paráfrasis, definiciones, etc.
• Reducción gramatical es el proceso inverso a la expansión:
L1: Two foreign envoys ...found fish swimming in their livingrooms
L2: Dos diplomáticos exranjeros encontraron hasta peces en la sala...
• El par técnico, translation couplet, ( mi traducción), es un proceso dual en que la equivalencia literal, es decir, traducción a un primer nivel léxico, de diccionario, o una traducción propuesta, neologismos, se unen al proceso de transcripción. Se utiliza para proponer terminología científica que tienden a generarse en las culturas donde se realizan los desarrollos o descubrimientos científicos. Por ejemplo, en el término medico lumpectomía, original del inglés lumpectomy . Este es el nombre de un proceso quirúrgico para eliminar los tumores mamarios: aquí se presenta un préstamo integrado -lump, nódulo, protuberancia- junto a un componente del griego -tomía. El uso de este léxico se circunscribe a la medicina, en una especialidad específica y un proceso particular con nombre original del inglés.
• Paráfrasis es uno de los últimos recursos del traductor. Mediante su uso, los significados de L1 pueden ser amplificados, redistribuidos o interpretados. Podríamos llamarla traducción libre, en que el traductor aplica indirectamente el significado general de una oración original a su traducción en L2.
L1: The tip of the iceberg
L2: Una pequeña parte del problema
• Traducción institucional, o through-translation , (mi traducción), se refiere a la traducción de nombres institucionales (agencias, documentos, organismos, reglamentaciones oficiales, procesos, etc.) que tienden a tomar nombres universales, como las de Naciones Unidas, campo legal y comercial, etc.
Royal Navy : Real Armada Británica
Volkskammer: Parlamento Alemán
People´s Republic of China : República Popular China
Bundestag: Senado ( de Alemania)
• Reformulación de oraciones o recasting sentences es la traducción de oraciones sintácticamente complejas por alternativas más simples, sin sacrificar el sentido del original.
• Reorganización y mejoramiento: (en el caso de existir jerga, errores, faltas de ortografía, idiolecto, mala redacción, etc.) Estos se justifican solo si el texto SL trata de información factual, o si su edición es defectuosa.
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